With Valentine’s Day being just yesterday, it seemed fitting to do this week’s “Did You Know” about something that happened on that day way back in 1929. Known as the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre, the shooting took place in a garage in Chicago, Illinois, the one city in the country that had been quickly gaining a reputation for violence. This was largely due to the amount of gang warfare that occurred, primarily led by the man known as the chief crime lord: Al Capone. The violence was between Capone and his rivals. The bloody climax on Valentine’s Day was known as the bloody climax to this gang war, due to the fact that it marked the end of significant opposition to Capone’s rule in Chicago.

Al Capone, also known as Al “Scarface” Capone, took over for his boss Johnny Torrio in 1925, after Torrio retired to Brooklyn after an assassination attempt. During this time, American gangsters earned their money through the illegal manufacturing and selling of alcohol and the operation of illicit drinking establishments known as speakeasies. Gambling and prostitution were also factors in the massive amounts of money these gangsters made during this time of Prohibition. Research states that Capone made a total of $60 million a year, with a net worth of $100 million in 1927 from these activities. This is why Capone was determined to gain control over most of his rivals, eliminating his completion.

By 1924, the authorities stated that there had been at least sixteen gang-related murders, all of which they believed that Capone had been responsible, since he was known to like to gun down his rivals. These murders continued, and in 1929, there was a high of 64 murders in one year. However, the most gruesome murders of all occurred on February 14, 1929, when seven men who were known to be associated with the Irish gangster George Morgan, also known as George “Bugs” Morgan. Morgan was known to be Capone’s longtime enemy and ran his bootlegging operations out of a garage on the North Side of Chicago. In this same garage, the massacre occurred.

Several men dressed as policemen entered the garage and made Morgan’s men line up standing, facing the wall. Around 70 rounds of ammunition were fired at the men. However, when police arrived, one gang member was still alive, but barely. Frank Gusenberg was pressed to reveal what had happened, but he refused to talk before he died. There were only a handful of eyewitnesses, but it was eventually discovered that the med had impersonated policemen. Morgan, who had been on his way to the garage and missed the massacre by minutes, immediately blamed Capone’s gang. Capone, however, claimed to be at home in Florida.

No one was ever brought to trial for the murders. This was one of the first major crimes that the science of ballistics was used to determine who the shooters were and what weapons were used. Machine guns were determined to have been used in the shooting. Though the police never had enough evidence to convict Al Capone, who had the airtight alibi of being in Florida, the public believed that he was responsible. This made Capone a national celebrity and brought him the unwanted attention of the federal government. This is why it is commonly said that though the massacred ended any significant opposition to Capone, it also marked the beginning of his downfall. Dubbed as “Public Enemy No. 1,” federal authorities began investigating Capone.

When planning to see all of the fantastic sites in this country on a cross country trip, there is always one destination that everyone makes an effort to see. This particular landmark is located in Arizona, stretches over 270 miles long, is 18 miles wide, and one mile deep. This area of layers upon layers of ancient rock is none other than the famous Grand Canyon, located in northern Arizona and is a good timeline of the Earth’s history. The Grand Canyon received National Park status in 1919, and today the Grand Canyon National Park encompasses more than one million acres of land. Quite a popular destination, the park receives almost five million visitors each year.

Completely a natural landmark, the Grand Canyon was cut by the Colorado River. There are many side canyons and surrounding plateaus in the area. Generally known for its red color, there are some areas of other colors including buff, gray, green, pink, brown, and violet. The Canyon’s size and magnitude are what draws those five million visitors to the area. However, that is not all that can be gained from this area. It turns out that all of the exposed rocks in the canyon walls help construct a time scale of Earth’s history that geologists can use to determine previous geologic events. Though not a complete record, the timeline lacks some areas due to the time gaps due to erosion.

In the actual canyon, there is a wide variety of animal life. Common animals include different varieties of squirrels, coyotes, foxes, deer, badgers, bobcats, rabbits, chipmunks, and kangaroo rats. There are also many bird species, including the national bird the bald eagle and the California condor. The area is also known for its drought-resistant plants, due to the fact that the temperatures in the summer can reach up to 120°F. These types of plants include tamarisks, yuccas, agaves, and numerous species of cactus. Fossils can also be found in the area as well, but most of them turn out to be of primitive algae and marine species such as mollusks and corals. Other types are not as abundant because of the advanced age of the rocks. According to the official website for the park, the oldest human artifacts found in the area proved to be nearly 12,000 years old dating back to the Paleo-Indian period. Today, three Indian reservations, the Navajo, Havasupai and Hualapai, adjoin Grand Canyon National Park.

The Grand Canyon was explored and mapped during expeditions planned by the U.S. government in the early 1800’s. This was primarily done by trappers. Geologist and ethnographer John Wesley Powell was the first person documented to have descended by boat through the canyon in 1869. There were more expeditions during the 1870’s, during which there were extensive reports on the geography and geology. In 1893, a portion of the land was set aside as the Grand Canyon Forest Reserve by President Harrison. This area was then designated in 1903 as a game preserve. In 1908 it became a national monument by President Theodore Roosevelt, until 1919 when it was established as Grand Canyon National Park, as was previously stated.

We all have them: personal computers that allow us to do whatever we want to do, from simple things such as playing games to sending emails and communicating with people in other countries. With the click of a mouse, so much can be accomplished. It is amazing that today there are so many devices that are getting smaller than ever before and are becoming capable of so much more than they ever were. It’s hard to imagine a time without computers. But I’m sure some of us still remember our first computers: those big boxy stations that took up a large desk. Now everything can be built into an eight by eight, one inch think box. Computers have come a long way since the first ones invented. However, the original personal computers were anything but personal. Instead they were massive machines that, when compared to modern devices, were quite different.

The “computer age” started with electronic computers that were large, expensive, and required teams of engineers to run them. The first of these monstrosities was called ENIAC, also known as the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer. It was built at the University of Pennsylvania for the purpose of doing ballistics calculations during World War II. To picture what this machine looked like, image something that cost $500,000, weighed 30 tons, and took up 2,000 square feet of floor space. And there you have ENIAC: the tangle of cables and hundreds of blinking lights and mechanical switches. If machines like this were so complicated, how did computers ever survive? What made people think that they were worth the effort? In actuality, while ENIAC was producing data faster in minutes than any team of scientists could produce in hours, new technologies were producing smaller computers.

When the microprocessor was invented, the way was paved for computers to go the distance. Before the microprocessor, computers needed separate circuit chips for each function. Now, with a microprocessor the size of a thumbnail, computers could run programs and remember data and information. Quickly after that, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) produced a “build-it-yourself” computer kit called Altair, which sold thousands each for $400. Though popular, the kit produced a computer that had no screen or keyboard. There were only the flashing lights and the switches. However, in 1975, MITS hired Paul G. Allen and Bill Gates to create software to make Altair easier to use. As we all know, their programming was a success, and taking the money they earned, they created their own company called Microsoft.

Since we mentioned Gates and Allen, we cannot forget to mention Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak who also built a homemade computer that would likewise change the world. Called the Apple I, it was more sophisticated than the Altair, with more memory, a cheaper microprocessor, and a monitor. When introduced, the Apple II had a keyboard and a color screen. And with these new computers, a revolution had begun which brought about new companies also looking to market their own computers. And that leaves us where we are today: with laptops, tablets, smart phones, and whatever else is in the works for the future.

June 14 of every year is officially known as Flag Day, a holiday commemorating the anniversary of the 1777 adoption of the U.S. flag. This year’s Flag Day marked the ninety-five anniversary of President Woodrow Wilson issuing a proclamation that officially established the day as a holiday. The idea first originated in 1885 when B J Cigrand, a schoolteacher, arranged for the pupils in the Fredonia, Wisconsin Public School, District 6, to observe June 14 (the 108th anniversary of the official adoption of The Stars and Stripes) as ‘Flag Birthday.’ In numerous magazines and newspaper articles and public addresses over the following years, Cigrand continued to enthusiastically advocate the observance of June 14 as ‘Flag Birthday,’ or ‘Flag Day.’

Following this first celebration, other areas of the country conducted their own celebrations for the flag for decades following the original. Inspired by these three decades of state and local celebrations, Flag Day – the anniversary of the Flag Resolution of 1777 – was officially established by the Proclamation of President Woodrow Wilson on May 30th, 1916. While Flag Day was celebrated in various communities for years after Wilson’s proclamation, it was not until August 3rd, 1949, that President Truman signed an Act of Congress designating June 14th of each year as National Flag Day.

In order to learn more about this holiday, I’ve compiled a few lesser-known facts about the Stars and Stripes that are of interest. We can begin with who contributed to the creation of our nation’s flag. It is widely believed that Betsy Ross, who assisted the Revolutionary War effort by repairing uniforms and sewing tents, made and helped design the first American flag. However, there is no historical evidence that she contributed to Old Glory’s creation. It was not until her grandson William Canby held an 1870 press conference to recount the story that the American public learned of her possible role. This flag contained thirteen stars in a circle, representing the thirteen original colonies.

In 1968, the Flag Protection Act was enacted, making it illegal to burn or otherwise deface the Stars and Stripes. In two landmark decisions 20 years later, the Supreme Court ruled that the government couldn’t curb individuals’ First Amendment rights by prohibiting desecration of the U.S. flag. Respectful burning of damaged flags according to established protocol has always been acceptable. However, unlike setting an intact flag on fire, flying one upside-down is not always intended as an act of protest. According to the Flag Code, it can also be an official distress signal. Despite the large amount of “patriotic” gear ranging from tee shirts to swimsuits to boxer shorts, the Flag Code also stays that the Stars and Stripes should not appear on apparel, bedding, or decorative items.

There are also proper guidelines when flying or displaying a flag. Etiquette calls for American flags to be illuminated by sunlight or another light source while on display. When flags are taken down from their poles, care must be taken to keep it from touching the ground. In fact, the American flag should always be kept aloft, meaning that rugs and carpets featuring the Stars and Stripes are barred by the Flag Code. When the flags of cities, states, localities or groups are flown on the same staff as the American flag, Old Glory should always be at the top. When flags of two or more nations are displayed, they should be of equivalent size and flown from separate staffs of the same height. The Flag Code strictly prohibits adding an insignia, drawing or other markings to the Stars and Stripes. Some American politicians have been known to defy this regulation by signing copies of the U.S. flag for their supporters.

And, if you’ve ever wondered how to correctly fold an American flag, first, enlist a partner and stand facing one another, each holding both corners of one of the rectangle’s shorter sides. Working together, lift the half of the flag that usually hangs on the bottom over the half that contains the blue field of stars. Next, fold the flag lengthwise a second time so that the stars are visible on the outside. Make a triangular fold at the striped end, bringing one corner up to meet the top edge. Continue to fold the flag in this manner until only a rectangle of star-studded blue can be seen.

December 7 marks the anniversary of Pearl Harbor, the day in 1941 when hundreds of Japanese fighter planes attacked the American naval base near Honolulu, Hawaii. What brought around this attack, and what came as a result of this day in American history? Pearl Harbor is a topic commonly studied in history classes, but it’s important to remember the many lives lost that day and the impact it had on Americans everywhere.

Even though the attack itself was a surprise for America, it seemed inevitable since Japan and the United States had been pushing towards war for many years before. Japan was attempting to solve their economic and demographic problems by expanding its territory and taking over its neighbor’s land and import market. In this way, in 1937, Japan declared war on China. In response to this declaration, the United States used economic sanctions and trade embargoes, hoping that no access to money, goods, and supplies would cause Japan to forfeit its expansionism. However, the sanctions only made Japan more determined, and consequentially, neither side would budge in negotiations. No one doubted that war was inevitable, but no one could expect what would occur.

Because Japan and Hawaii were roughly 4,000 miles apart, it was inconceivable that Japan would start the war with an attack on American territory. Officials believed that the attack would most likely occur on any of the nearby European colonies in the South Pacific. That being said, American military leaders were not expecting or adequately prepared for an attack. As a result, the naval facilities at Pearl Harbor were undefended. Pearl Harbor contained the entire Pacific Fleet, and hundreds of airplanes were located in the airfields. The target was irresistible, especially since no one expected it.

On December 7, the Japanese launched their attack, with a simple plan to destroy the Pacific Fleet. Total destruction would limit American ability to fight back Japanese armed forces spreading across the South Pacific. At 8:00 a.m., Japanese planes filled the sky over Pearl Harbor. Bombs and bullets hit the vessels below. At 8:10 a.m., a 1,800-pound bomb smashed through the deck of the battleship USS Arizona. The ship exploded and sank with more than 1,000 men inside. Torpedoes pierced the shell of the battleship USS Oklahoma. With 400 sailors aboard, the Oklahoma lost her balance, rolled onto her side and slipped underwater. By the time the attack was over, every battleship in Pearl Harbor–USS Arizona, USS Oklahoma, USS California, USS West Virginia, USS Utah, USS Maryland, USS Pennsylvania, USS Tennessee and USS Nevada–had sustained significant damage.

When the attack was over, 18 American ships and nearly 300 airplanes were either crippled or destroyed. Labeled “a date which will live in infamy,” the attack on Pearl Harbor resulted in almost 2,500 men killed and another 1,000 wounded.  However, the Japanese had failed to cripple the Pacific Fleet. Because aircraft carriers were the most important naval vessel at the time, and because all of the Pacific Fleet’s carriers were away from the base at the time of the attack, the U.S. Navy was able to rebound relatively quickly from the attack. On December 8, President Roosevelt addressed the American people saying “the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked.” He went on to say, “No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory. I believe I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost, but will make very certain that this form of treachery shall never endanger us again.”

Though the Japanese had wanted to force the United States to lift their economic sanction, they instead pushed the United States into the global conflict. On December 8, Congress approved Roosevelt’s declaration of war. Three days later, Japanese allies Germany and Italy declared war against the United States. For the second time, Congress reciprocated. More than two years after the start of the conflict, the United States had entered World War II.

We last left off on our trip through the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World with three wonders left to learn about. The three remaining wonders include the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus may not be a topic you know much about, but this tomb was a tomb like no other. Located in what is now southeastern Turkey, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was a tomb built by Artemisia for her husband, Mausolus, the king of Carnia in Asia Minor. The mausoleum was made entirely of white marble and is thought to have been about 135 feet high. The building’s design consisted of three rectangular layers. The first layer was a 60-foot base of steps, followed by a middle layer of 36 Ionic columns and a stepped, pyramid-shaped roof. At the very top of the roof lay the tomb, decorated by the work of four sculptors and a 20-foot marble rendition of a four-horse chariot. The mausoleum was largely destroyed in an earthquake in the 13th century, but its remains were later used in the fortification of a castle.

The Colossus of Rhodes was an enormous bronze sculpture of the sun god Helios built by the Rhodians over 12 years in the third century B.C. The city was said to be the target of a Macedonian siege early in the fourth century B.C. and, according to legend, the Rhodians sold the tools and equipment left behind by the Macedonians to pay for the Colossus. The statue was, at 100 feet, the tallest of the ancient world. It was completed around 280 B.C. and stood for sixty years until it was toppled in an earthquake. Sadly, it was never rebuilt. Hundreds of years later, Arabs invaded Rhodes and sold the remains of the statue as scrap metal. Because of this, archeologists do not know much about the exact location of the statue or what it looked like.

The last wonder of the world was located on a small island called Pharos near the city of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria was completed around 270 B.C. During the reign of Ptolemy II, the lighthouse helped to guide Nile River ships in and out of the city’s busy harbor. Ancient coins on which the lighthouse was depicted have helped archeologists deduce that the structure had three tiers: a square level at the bottom, an octagonal level in the middle, and a cylindrical top. Above that stood a 16-foot statue, most likely of Ptolemy II or Alexander the Great, for whom the city was named. Estimates of the lighthouse’s height have ranged from 200 to 600 feet, but most modern scholars believe it was about 380 feet tall. The lighthouse was gradually destroyed during a series of earthquakes from 956 to 1323. Some of its remains have been discovered at the bottom of the Nile.

And there you have it. Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, only one in existence today, and many of them have very little proof that they even existed. Perhaps that is the reason that throughout the recent years, a project was attempted to update the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, by making a new list with modern wonders. The winners of the poll were announced in 2007 and included the following Seven Wonders of the Modern World: Chichen Itza, Christ the Redeemer, Colosseum, the Great Wall of China, Machu Picchu, Petra, and the Taj Majal.

If someone asked you to name all Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, would you be able to? Do you know which ones or how many of them are still in existence today? The Seven Wonders of the World are amazing works of art and architecture that show just exactly what human beings are capable of. Debates have occurred for years over which achievements should have been included in this select group. We will go over each of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and you can decide for yourself if these seven are really truly worthy of the title they were given.

The first of the seven is the Great Pyramid of Giza located in Egypt. The Great Pyramids are located at Giza on the west bank of the Nile River north of Cairo. They are in fact the only wonder of the ancient world that is still in existence. The three pyramids were built between 2700 B.C. and 2500 B.C. as royal tombs. The largest is Khufu, which was the tallest building in the world for a long time. It wasn’t until the nineteenth century, when a taller structure was built. The nearly symmetrical pyramids were built without the aid of modern tools or equipment. The Egyptians used log rollers and sledges to move the stones into place. The sloped walls were originally built as steps and then filled in with limestone.

The second wonder is the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, said to have been built near the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq. The gardens were said to have been planted as high as 75 feet in the air on a huge square brick terrace that was laid out in steps like a theater. Writers have described how people could walk underneath the beautiful gardens, which rested on tall stone columns. Modern scientists have deduced that for the gardens to survive they would have had to be irrigated using a system consisting of a pump, waterwheel, and cisterns to carry water from the Euphrates many feet into the air. Though there are multiple accounts of the gardens in both Greek and Roman literature, none of them are firsthand. As a result, most modern scholars believe that the existence of the gardens was part of a fictional tale.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was crafted by the Athenian sculptor Phidias and completed and placed in the temple of Zeus at Olympia, site of the ancient Olympics, around the mid-fifth century B.C. The statue depicted the god of thunder seated on a wooden throne. The statue was decorated with gold and ivory. At 40 feet, it was so tall that its head nearly touched the top of the temple. According to legend, the sculptor asked Zeus for a sign of his approval after the statue was finished, and soon after, the temple was struck by lightning. The Zeus statue graced the temple at Olympia for more than eight centuries before Christian priests persuaded the Roman emperor to close the temple in the fourth century A.D. After, the statue was moved to a temple in Constantinople, where it is believed to have been destroyed in a fire in the year 462.

The next stop on the Seven Wonders of the World tour is the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, two marble temples built around 550 B.C. and 350 B.C. The former was designed by the Cretan architect Chersiphron and his son Metagenes and decorated by some of the most celebrated artists of the ancient world. The building burned on July 21, 356 B.C., according to legend the same night that Alexander the Great was born. About six years later, the building of a new temple to replace it was built. The new building was surrounded by marble steps that led to a more than 400-foot-long terrace. Inside, there stood 127 marble columns and a statue of Artemis. The temple was largely destroyed in A.D. 262, and it was not until the 1860s that archeologists dug up the first of the ruins of the temple’s columns at the bottom of the Cayster River.

Stay tuned for the next issue of The Charger Bulletin, in which we’ll cover the remaining three wonders.

The Spartans, a recent popular topic and culture for movies and spoofs, have created interest in the warrior society of ancient Greece that reached the height of their power after defeating the rival city Athens in the Peloponnesian War. But how much of what we see in the movies can actually be relied upon as true facts about the Spartan people and culture? Were they really great warriors, and how much of their home life was dedicated to military service?

The Spartans were in fact a culture that was centered on loyalty to the state and military service. Male Spartans citizens were allowed only one occupation: soldier. Sparta was an ancient Greek city located in the present-day region of southern Greece, called Laconia In this society, there were three groups, or classes, of people: the Spartans (full citizens), the Helots (serfs or slaves), and the Perioeci (neither slaves nor citizens). The Perioeci, whose name meant “dwellers-around,” worked as craftsmen and traders and built weapons for the Spartans.

The Helots, whose name means “captives,” were fellow Greeks, originally from Laconia and Messenia, who had been conquered by the Spartans and turned into slaves. The Spartans’ way of life would not have been possible without the Helots, who handled all the day-to-day tasks and unskilled labor required to keep society functioning. Spartans, who were outnumbered by the Helots, often treated them brutally and oppressively in an effort to prevent uprisings. Spartans would humiliate the Helots by doing such things as forcing them to get drunk on wine making fools of themselves in public. This practice was intended to demonstrate to young people how an adult Spartan should never act. Spartans were even allowed to kill Helots for being too smart or too fit.

As far as education was considered, all healthy male Spartan citizens participated in the compulsory state-sponsored education system, the Agoge, which emphasized obedience, endurance, courage, and self-control. Spartan men devoted their lives to military service, and they lived well into adulthood. A Spartan was taught that loyalty to the state came before everything else, including family. Starting at the age of seven, Spartan boys entered the rigorous state-sponsored education, military training, and socialization program. At age 20, Spartan males became full-time soldiers and remained on active duty until age 60. The Spartans’ constant military drilling and discipline made them skilled at the ancient Greek style of fighting in a phalanx formation. In the phalanx, the army worked as a unit in a close, deep formation, and made coordinated mass maneuvers. No one soldier was considered superior to another.

Although Spartan women were not active in the military, they were educated and enjoyed more status and freedom than other Greek women. Spartan women had a reputation for being independent-minded. Female Spartans often received a formal education, although separate from boys and not at boarding schools. In part to attract mates, females engaged in athletic competitions, including javelin-throwing and wrestling, and also sang and danced competitively. As adults, Spartan women were allowed to own and manage property. Marriage was important to Spartans, as the state put pressure on people to have male children who would grow up to become citizen-warriors and replace those who died in battle. Men who delayed marriage were publically shamed, while those who fathered multiple sons could be rewarded.

However, the supremacy of the Spartans was short-lived. In 371 B.C., they suffered a defeat at the hands of the Thebans at the Battle of Leucra. In the following year, there was also an invasion into Spartan territory, in which the Helots were liberated from slavery. Though the Spartans continued to exist, they began to decline.

It’s a bird; it’s a plane. It’s an unidentified flying object? Unidentified flying objects, most commonly known in popular culture as UFOs, refer to alien spacecraft. Throughout history, sightings of these objects have been reported in various parts of the world striking national panic, stories of abduction, and questions about life on other planets and whether or not extraterrestrials have visited Earth. The subject has become a popular one especially in various films and books. Popularity especially increased after World War II. So when was the first “official” UFO sighting, and who claims to have seen it?

The first UFO sighting occurred in 1947 by businessman Kenneth Arnold, who claimed to see a group of nine high-speed objects near Mount Rainier in Washington. Arnold was flying a small plane at the time. He estimated the speed of the objects at several thousand miles per hour. Describing these objects as crescent-shaped, Arnold said they “moved like saucers skipping on water.” However, the newspaper printing the story mistakenly stated that the objects were saucer-shaped. Hence, from that moment on, the term flying saucer became popular.  In fact, following the first “sighting,” sightings of these objects increased.

In 1948, the United States Air Force began an investigation of these reports called Project Sign. The conclusion of those involved in the study claimed that the UFOs seen were most likely sophisticated Soviet aircraft. However, many researchers still believed in the possibilities that these sightings were indeed spacecraft from other worlds. Project Sign was later replaced by Project Grudge. In 1952, Project Grudge was also replaced by Project Blue Book, the longest lasting of the research involving UFOs.  Headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio from 1952 to 1969, Project Blue Book compiled reports of more than 12,000 sightings or events, each of which was ultimately classified as either  “identified”( with a known astronomical, atmospheric, or artificial (human-caused) phenomenon) or “unidentified.” The latter category, six percent of the total, included cases for which there were insufficient information to make an identification with a known phenomenon.

Despite the findings of the projects, Americans developed an obsession with UFS. This led the Central Intelligence Agency to prompt the U.S. government to establish an expert panel of scientists to further investigate the phenomena. The panel was headed by H.P. Robertson, a physicist at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California, and included other physicists, an astronomer, and a rocket engineer. After days of speaking with workers on the other projects and observing the video and photographs at UFO sightings, the Panel released a set of conclusions. Their conclusions stated that 90 percent of the sightings could be easily attributed to astronomical and meteorological phenomena or to earthly objects as aircraft, balloons, birds, and searchlights. They added that there was no obvious security threat. However, parts of the panel’s report were kept classified until 1979, and this long period of secrecy helped fuel suspicions of a government cover-up.

So if all of these sightings and abductions could be explained as something other than what people believed them to be, what are some possible explanations for them? Researchers say that UFO reports have varied widely in reliability and depend on the number of witnesses, the conditions, and the direction of the sighting. Additional thoughts on the matter ask believers to understand that the eye can play tricks on the viewer. Bright lights can often seem to move and visual estimates of speed and distance are unreliable. As for abductions, many psychologists have investigated this phenomenon, and they have suggested that this could be a result of sleep paralysis.

As we all know, the success of the space program did not end with the Apollo missions. In fact, after the success of the Apollo 11 mission, NASA proposed a plan that included human flights to mars, a series of large space stations to be developed during the 1970s, and a new, reusable space transportation system to send people and supplies to those stations. However, this plan was rejected due to the lack of interest in major space programs. Thankfully, in 1972, NASA received presidential approval to develop a partially reusable transport vehicle called a space shuttle.

The plans for the space shuttle began underway. The shuttle was to be used as a space platform to conduct in-orbit research for periods as long as two weeks. The space shuttle design had three major components: a reusable winged orbiter to carry crew and cargo, a large external tank to carry the liquid-oxygen and liquid-hydrogen propellants for the engines, and two solid-fuel rockets to be used in accelerating the vehicle during the first two minutes of flight. A fleet of four operational orbiters, named Columbia, Challenger, Atlantis, and Discovery, was built in order to allow multiple shuttle flights each year. Facilities in Florida originally constructed for the Apollo program were remodeled for shuttle use.

The first space shuttle flight took place on April 12, 1981. Aboard the flight were astronauts John W. Young, a veteran of the Apollo programs, and Robert Laurel Crippen. With additional shuttle flights following the first flight, it became clear that the vehicle’s operational costs and performance were not working out the way it was expected. Major refurbishment was required between each launch, decreasing the amount of launches that could occur each year. The highest flight rate achieved was in 1985, when the shuttle was launched nine times. Each launch cost hundreds of millions of dollars, rather than the tens of millions that had been promised in 1972.

On January 28, 1986, the Challenger orbiter was destroyed in a catastrophic explosion, 73 seconds after liftoff. Its seven-person crew perished; among them was schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe, on board as the first private citizen in space. After the accident, the shuttle fleet was grounded until September 1988. A replacement orbiter, Endeavour, was built, but, upon the resumption of flights, the shuttle fleet was operated with much greater assurances for the safety of its crew. This limited the flight rate to six to eight missions per year. The shuttle program suffered its second fatal disaster on February 1, 2003, when the orbiter Columbia broke up over Texas at an altitude of about 60 km (40 miles) as it was returning from an orbital mission. All seven crew members died, including Ilan Ramon, the first Israeli astronaut to go into space. The shuttle fleet was once again grounded during the ensuing investigation into the cause of the accident.

At the end of the space shuttle program, NASA had made 135 successful launches, ending with the successful launch and landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis on July 21, 2011. NASA’s space shuttle fleet will retire and be on display at institutions across the country to inspire the next generation of explorers and engineers. It is important to understand that the end of the space shuttle program does not mean the end of NASA or even of NASA sending humans into space. NASA has a robust program of exploration, technology development, and scientific research that will last for years to come.